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Showing posts with label chemistry. Show all posts
Showing posts with label chemistry. Show all posts
Monday, July 6, 2015
AP Scores !!
My AP scores came in today. On Biology I got a 3 and on Chemistry I got a 5. I have already Explained the 5 point grading scale, with 1 being the lowest score. I passed both my AP exams, got 10 credit hours ( 3 from AP BIOL and 7 from AP CHEM ) and 1.5 general requirements ( for the College I sent my scores to, they were Biological science and 1/2 of Physical Science ). I also got credit for BIOL 100 and CHEM 105 ,& 106. I am very happy with the result, ( I liked Chemistry better than Biology , so that's that ).
Wednesday, July 1, 2015
Some of Big Idea 6: Equilibrium
My AP scores are coming this Monday, the 6th, and this is going to be the last subject blog about AP Chemistry. Big Idea 6 is the biggest idea in my opinion, so I will not cover all of it, my apologies. Reactions ( which are covered in Big Idea 3 ) are reversible, they can go both ways. When the rate of each direction is equal, then the reaction is at equilibrium. With Le Chatelier's principle you can determine which way an equilibrium will shift when you add a stress. Here are some types of stress you can apply and which way the equilibrium will shift:
Add more reactant or product ( increasing the concentration of a reactant or product ): The Reaction will shift away from the added compound ( for example, if it is added reactant, then it will shift right, toward the product side, to take away the added reactant )
Take away reactant or product ( decreasing the concentration of a reactant or product ): The reaction will shift towards the depleted compound ( for example , if it is depleted reactant, then it will shift left, toward the reactant side, to restore the original amount of reactant )
Increase the pressure ( this only works with equilibrium reactions that have compounds in the gaseous state in them ) : To find which way it would shift, you count the number of moles of gas on each side of the reaction. With an increase in pressure it would shift to the side with the least moles of gas.
Decrease the pressure ( this only works with equilibrium reactions that have compounds in the gaseous state in them ) : To find which way it would shift, you count the number of moles of gas on each side of the reaction. With a decrease in pressure it would shift to the side with the most moles of gas.
Increase in Temperature ( for this stress, you need , and will be given , to know if the reaction is Exothermic or Endothermic ) : If the reaction is exothermic , you can make heat go on the product side, and act as a product ( If it is endothermic, heat goes on the reactant side, and behaves as a reactant ). So an increase of heat means an increase of either reactant ( Endothermic reactions ) or product ( Exothermic reactions ) , and means that the equilibrium will shift away from the added heat.
Decrease in Temperature ( for this stress, you need , and will be given , to know if the reaction is Exothermic or Endothermic ) : If the reaction is exothermic , you can make heat go on the product side, and act as a product ( If it is endothermic, heat goes on the reactant side, and behaves as a reactant ). So a decrease of heat means a decrease of either reactant ( Endothermic reactions ) or product ( Exothermic reactions ) , and means that the equilibrium will shift towards the depleted heat.
Remember , Exothermic means - ΔH while Endothermic means + ΔH.
You can setup an equilibrium constant expression on any reversible reaction. It looks like this :
K=[products]^coefficient
[reactants]^coefficient
Where K is the equilibrium constant, and the [ brackets] mean Molarity. Solids and liquids are not used in the expression. There are many types of K , there is Kc , Kp, Ksp, Ka & Kb. K changes with temperature , according to the following equation:
ΔG=-RTlnK , which rearranged is K=e^-ΔG/RT. An increase of temperature is an increase in K ( and therefore K and T are directly proportional ) also this can be explained on the molecular level without math. With the needed values of K and the other compound molarites you can find the concentration of a compound with unknown concentration, using the Equilibrium constant expression. Kc is the Equilibrium constant expression for concentration, Kp for pressure, Ksp the solubility product constant, Ka the Acid equilibrium constant, and Kb for bases.
You can do a lot of math with these, plenty of it Algebra. I am going to go through only 3 of them and not in to much detail. The simplest one is finding a concentration of a reactant/product with known Kc and other reactant/product concentrations. Example:
What is the concentration of NH3 in the reaction NH3+H2O(l) <=> NH4+ +OH-, If [NH4+]=4 ,[OH-]=2 , and the Kc is ( this I must tell you, is totally made up, sorry, you can look up some K's online ) 10 ?
First set up the expression:
Kc=[NH4+][OH-]
[NH3]
Remember, Liquids aren't used.
Then rearrange it ( for [NH3] ) with basic algebra:
[NH3]= Kc
[NH4+][OH-]
And finally insert the values given:
[NH3]= 10 = 10/8=1.25 M
(4)(2)
Kp uses gas pressures instead of concentration:
What is the Kp of the reaction N2+2O2<=> 2NO2 , If the pressure of the reactants and products are 3,6 and 5 atms respectively ?
set up the expression:
Kp=(PNO2)^2
( PN2)( PO2)^2
Plug in the values
Kp=5^2 = 25=0.231 ( rounded to 3 sig figs , this might not be the real Kp for the reaction )
( 3)( 6)^2 108
Ka is the equilibrium constant for acids, Big Idea 6 has more on acids and bases ( which I will not cover on this blog ), like Titrations and buffers. We are going to do a problem that requires the Quadratic equation:
What is the pH of a 0.01 M HF solution ? The Ka is 7.2*10^-4 ( now this one is the right K )
write the reaction for the dissociation of Hydrofluoric acid:
HF<=> H+ + OH-
( all aqueous )
set it up :
Ka=[H+][OH-]
[HF]
Then you do some ICE box work and get
7.2*10^-4=x^2
0.01-x
After some Algebra....
(0.01-x)(7.2*10^-4)=x^2
7.2*10^-6-7.2*10^-4x=x^2
you get it in standard quadratic form ( a+b+c, in this case a=1, b =7.2*10^-4 , and c= -7.2*10^-6 ):
x^2+7.2*10^-4x - 7.2*10^-6=0
Then you use the quadratic equation:
x=-b + (sqrt)b^2-4ac
2a
x=-7.2*10^-4+(sqrt)7.2*10^-4^2+4(7.2*10^-6)
2
We use + in this case not - .
The - and the - on 7.2*10^-6 cancel out to leave us +
And we get...... 0.00235 M , which equals the [H+]. Now to find the pH you need to take the
-log of the [H+] , which equals 2.63 and this is the pH!!
Q is the reaction quotient, with it you can determine the proportion of Products to reactants at any point in a reaction. With this and the K value you can determine if the reaction is at equilibrium or not ,and ( if it is not at equilibrium) which way it will shift and what it will favor.
If QIf Q>K, than the reaction isn't at equilibrium and will shift left, favoring the reactants.
While if Q=K , the reaction is at equilibrium.
There is a way to determine an unknown K from known K's of similar reactions, like Hess's law.
But the rules are a bit different:
If a reaction is multiplied by a number, than its K is raised to the power of that number. Example:
N2+2O2<=> 2NO2 -----> 2N2+4O2<=> 4NO2
K -----> 2K
If a reaction is flipped or reversed, than the K will become a reciprocal of its original value. Example:
N2+2O2<=> 2NO2 -----> 2NO2<=> N2+2O2
1
K -----> K
And instead of adding the K's ( when the reactions are arranged so that all things cancel exept the ones in the wanted reaction ), you multiply them together.
( remember my sources from my last AP Chemistry blog )
Add more reactant or product ( increasing the concentration of a reactant or product ): The Reaction will shift away from the added compound ( for example, if it is added reactant, then it will shift right, toward the product side, to take away the added reactant )
Take away reactant or product ( decreasing the concentration of a reactant or product ): The reaction will shift towards the depleted compound ( for example , if it is depleted reactant, then it will shift left, toward the reactant side, to restore the original amount of reactant )
Increase the pressure ( this only works with equilibrium reactions that have compounds in the gaseous state in them ) : To find which way it would shift, you count the number of moles of gas on each side of the reaction. With an increase in pressure it would shift to the side with the least moles of gas.
Decrease the pressure ( this only works with equilibrium reactions that have compounds in the gaseous state in them ) : To find which way it would shift, you count the number of moles of gas on each side of the reaction. With a decrease in pressure it would shift to the side with the most moles of gas.
Increase in Temperature ( for this stress, you need , and will be given , to know if the reaction is Exothermic or Endothermic ) : If the reaction is exothermic , you can make heat go on the product side, and act as a product ( If it is endothermic, heat goes on the reactant side, and behaves as a reactant ). So an increase of heat means an increase of either reactant ( Endothermic reactions ) or product ( Exothermic reactions ) , and means that the equilibrium will shift away from the added heat.
Decrease in Temperature ( for this stress, you need , and will be given , to know if the reaction is Exothermic or Endothermic ) : If the reaction is exothermic , you can make heat go on the product side, and act as a product ( If it is endothermic, heat goes on the reactant side, and behaves as a reactant ). So a decrease of heat means a decrease of either reactant ( Endothermic reactions ) or product ( Exothermic reactions ) , and means that the equilibrium will shift towards the depleted heat.
Remember , Exothermic means - ΔH while Endothermic means + ΔH.
You can setup an equilibrium constant expression on any reversible reaction. It looks like this :
K=[products]^coefficient
[reactants]^coefficient
Where K is the equilibrium constant, and the [ brackets] mean Molarity. Solids and liquids are not used in the expression. There are many types of K , there is Kc , Kp, Ksp, Ka & Kb. K changes with temperature , according to the following equation:
ΔG=-RTlnK , which rearranged is K=e^-ΔG/RT. An increase of temperature is an increase in K ( and therefore K and T are directly proportional ) also this can be explained on the molecular level without math. With the needed values of K and the other compound molarites you can find the concentration of a compound with unknown concentration, using the Equilibrium constant expression. Kc is the Equilibrium constant expression for concentration, Kp for pressure, Ksp the solubility product constant, Ka the Acid equilibrium constant, and Kb for bases.
You can do a lot of math with these, plenty of it Algebra. I am going to go through only 3 of them and not in to much detail. The simplest one is finding a concentration of a reactant/product with known Kc and other reactant/product concentrations. Example:
What is the concentration of NH3 in the reaction NH3+H2O(l) <=> NH4+ +OH-, If [NH4+]=4 ,[OH-]=2 , and the Kc is ( this I must tell you, is totally made up, sorry, you can look up some K's online ) 10 ?
First set up the expression:
Kc=[NH4+][OH-]
[NH3]
Remember, Liquids aren't used.
Then rearrange it ( for [NH3] ) with basic algebra:
[NH3]= Kc
[NH4+][OH-]
And finally insert the values given:
[NH3]= 10 = 10/8=1.25 M
(4)(2)
Kp uses gas pressures instead of concentration:
What is the Kp of the reaction N2+2O2<=> 2NO2 , If the pressure of the reactants and products are 3,6 and 5 atms respectively ?
set up the expression:
Kp=(PNO2)^2
( PN2)( PO2)^2
Plug in the values
Kp=5^2 = 25=0.231 ( rounded to 3 sig figs , this might not be the real Kp for the reaction )
( 3)( 6)^2 108
Ka is the equilibrium constant for acids, Big Idea 6 has more on acids and bases ( which I will not cover on this blog ), like Titrations and buffers. We are going to do a problem that requires the Quadratic equation:
What is the pH of a 0.01 M HF solution ? The Ka is 7.2*10^-4 ( now this one is the right K )
write the reaction for the dissociation of Hydrofluoric acid:
HF<=> H+ + OH-
( all aqueous )
set it up :
Ka=[H+][OH-]
[HF]
Then you do some ICE box work and get
7.2*10^-4=x^2
0.01-x
After some Algebra....
(0.01-x)(7.2*10^-4)=x^2
7.2*10^-6-7.2*10^-4x=x^2
you get it in standard quadratic form ( a+b+c, in this case a=1, b =7.2*10^-4 , and c= -7.2*10^-6 ):
x^2+7.2*10^-4x - 7.2*10^-6=0
Then you use the quadratic equation:
x=-b + (sqrt)b^2-4ac
2a
x=-7.2*10^-4+(sqrt)7.2*10^-4^2+4(7.2*10^-6)
2
We use + in this case not - .
The - and the - on 7.2*10^-6 cancel out to leave us +
And we get...... 0.00235 M , which equals the [H+]. Now to find the pH you need to take the
-log of the [H+] , which equals 2.63 and this is the pH!!
Q is the reaction quotient, with it you can determine the proportion of Products to reactants at any point in a reaction. With this and the K value you can determine if the reaction is at equilibrium or not ,and ( if it is not at equilibrium) which way it will shift and what it will favor.
If Q
While if Q=K , the reaction is at equilibrium.
There is a way to determine an unknown K from known K's of similar reactions, like Hess's law.
But the rules are a bit different:
If a reaction is multiplied by a number, than its K is raised to the power of that number. Example:
N2+2O2<=> 2NO2 -----> 2N2+4O2<=> 4NO2
K -----> 2K
If a reaction is flipped or reversed, than the K will become a reciprocal of its original value. Example:
N2+2O2<=> 2NO2 -----> 2NO2<=> N2+2O2
1
K -----> K
And instead of adding the K's ( when the reactions are arranged so that all things cancel exept the ones in the wanted reaction ), you multiply them together.
( remember my sources from my last AP Chemistry blog )
Monday, June 29, 2015
Atoms and Chemistry part 2
Organic Chemistry,Biochemistry and Plastic
Organic Chemistry is the chemistry of studying compounds and molecules with carbon in them. Carbon is in all living things. Carbon can bond with many other atoms. This type of Chemistry deals with the making of organic compounds through chemical reactions. Organic chemistry studies hydrocarbons molecules with only hydrogen and carbon. Methane is an example of a hydrocarbon. Carbon forms long chains of molecules called polymers. Polymers are in plastics. Polymers are made of smaller molecules called monomers.
how did your
Carbon facts:
Atomic radius 67 pm
Atomic mass 12
Melting point 6422 F
boiling point 7281 F
Electronegativity 2.55
2 electron shells.
atomic number 6
forms diamond.
history
Jons Berzelius was a Swedish chemist who found the difference between Inorganic and Organic. Justus von Liebig also worked on organic chemistry.
Biochemistry
This is the study of chemical reactions and molecules in living things. Like proteins and reactions that keep things living. Biochemistry also deals with the molecules DNA is made out of.
History
The starting of Bio chemistry is sometimes considered the discovery of the first enzymes. ( These are large molecules that help you live in chemistry ) In 1833 Anselme Payen ( french) found it. They started using the name biochemistry in 1903. Carl Neuberg a German chemist coined it. The structure of DNA molecule was discovered in 1953. It is made out of four Compounds that are made with Carbon,Hydrogen,Nitrogen and Oxygen. They are: Cytosine,Quanine,Adenine and thymine.
Proteins and other Biomolecules
Proteins are large molecules made out of amino acids. These are smaller organic compounds. Each Amino acid contains three groups. Carboxly,Amino and side-chain. These are just molecules.
Carbohydrates are Molecules made out of smaller molecules called Monosaccharides. The simplest form of sugars. Some of these are glucose and fructose. So some Carbohydrates are large sugar molecules. Carbohydrates are the most common Biomolecule. they store energy. Lipids are fats. Nucleic acids are molecules that make DNA.
Fast fact!
Biochemistry may become obsolete with the invention of STED microscopy and PALM which are improved optical microscopes. With them you can see actual molecules ! 3 chemists just got the noble prize in chemistry for these inventions !
Plastic
The word plastic means that is can be shaped. Anything that has plasticity. But if that was plastic then clay and dough would be plastic too. The kind that we think of when you say it is a name for Polymers.
Plastics are usually made out of organic polymers. Polymers are big long molecules. There are Biopolymers like in DNA and there are Plastic polymers. I already wrote about Biopolymers. So I will write about plastic polymers. Plastics are made out of Polymers. Here are some types: Natural plastics: Tortoise shells and trees sap , Polystyrene: this is packaging foam. It is in plastic utensils and food containers. , Polyamide: Nylon used in toothbrush bristles. , Polyester&Polyethylene terephthalate: used in clothes and soft drink bottles, Polycarbonate: used in CD's and glasses , Arcrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene or ABS: This is used in keyboards and computers, Polypropylene: This is used in many things from clothes to loudspeakers. It has a number five, Polyethylene: most common plastic. Used in packaging, Polyvinly chloride: used in construction and Teflon a non stick plastic used in water slides.
Fast fact!
Polyethylene is a long hydro-carbon.
SPI Resin identification code
The SPI Resin identification code is a set of numbers in the recycle icon put on plastic things. The Society of the Plastics Industry made it in 1988. The main purpose of this was for recycling. They needed to separate different plastics/polymers for recycling.
here is a list:
1: Polyethylene terephthalate: Soft drinks: Usually recycled
2: High density Polyethylene: Bottles and grocery bags:Usually recycled
3: Polyvinly chloride: Pipes: Not very commonly recycled
4: Low density Polyethylene:Bags: Rarely recycled
5: Polypropylene: food containers: Rarely recycled
6: Polystyrene: packaging peanuts: Rarely recycled
7: Other plastics like Polycarbonate and nylon: Headlight lenses: Almost none recycled
Plastic changes from a liquid to a solid while it is being processed. So it is easy work with. You just pour it in a mold. Many things in the world are made out of plastic. The world would be different without it. Plastic is bad for the environment. Reasons: 90 % of plastic is made with petroleum a non-renewable resource. (this means that when the petroleum is gone we can't get it again)Another bad things about plastic is that it almost lasts forever ( it takes hundreds of years for plastic to decompose). Because it is made out of artificial molecules. Burning it gives of harmful chemicals so that's not good either. When you make plastic it creates pollution! Chemists are trying to make something better than plastic. One good way is with Nano-carbons. Molecules made by heating carbon with extremely high heat and changing the carbon atoms into molecules that are like plastic. The can be shaped easily. Making them makes very little pollution. The Tech is not ready yet but they have been used to make bowling balls.
Fast fact!
In china Plastic bags are called white pollution.
history
People have used natural plastics for a long time. Like during the medieval ages people used cow horns for drinking cups. Modern plastic came from things like rubber. Natural rubber comes from trees. The Mayans used the rubber to make balls to play games. Rubber is hard in cold temperatures and soft ans mushy in hot temperatures. In 1839 Charles Goodyear ( an american engineer: born 12/29/1800 Connecticut. died 7/1/1860 new York ) discovered how to treat rubber to make it withstand temperatures. It is called vulcanization. His rubbers was able to resist water, Chemical reactions, Electricity and other stuff. It could be molded in different shapes. The rubber tree became obsolete when people discovered how to make artificial plastics out of human made molecules. In 1856 Alexander Parkes patented Parkesine. Parkesine was the first man made plastic. It was made out of cellulose ( Organic compound with the formula C6H10O5 it is a polymer) treated with nitric acid (HNO3) and a solvent ( something the dissolves something else ). The first man made plastic made with synthetic( man made ) polymers was Bakelite. In 1907 Leo Hendrik Baekeland ( a Belgian american ) invented Bakelite. Bakelite is considered the first true plastic because it is made out of man made polymers. Bakelite was cheap and strong, humans loved it.
clay and dough like plastic
Clay can be shaped with your hands easily.
The Nuclear weapon, Radioactivity and Nuclear power
Nuclear weapon
The Nuclear weapon is a highly dangerous weapon.
History
In 1898 Pierre and Marie Curie discovered that pitchblende had a radioactive element in it which they called Radium. Ernest Rutherford said that the Nucleus was giving way and changing into different elements. People believed that here was hidden energy waiting to be used in these atoms. In 1933 Adolf Hitler became chancellor (leader) of Germany. It was dangerous for Jews to stay in Germany. Leo Szilard ran away to London. He patented the idea of a nuclear chain reaction ( this happens when a nuclear reaction ( This happens when two Nuclei hit each other and make different nuclei.) causes more nuclear reactions ). Szilard gave the patent to the British Leaders of the navy. Enrico Fermi said that when he shot neutrons at uranium he made artificial radioactivity. In 1938 Fritz Strassmann and Otto Hahn said they found the element Barium when they shot neutrons at uranium. This is because the Uranium Atom was decaying/splitting into other elements. Otto Frisch did a Experiment in 1939 and proved that the Uranium had decayed or split apart. He called it fission. When WWII began many Physicists new that the Fission bomb could be made. But they did not exactly know how to make it. Leo Szilard was worried that Germany was working on making a Nuclear bomb. He decided that he needed to write a letter to the President ( FDR ). Saying that america needs to make a Nuclear bomb before the Nazis. He wrote the letter and asked Albert Einstein to sign it. Albert did and it was given to the President. This led to the Uranium committee and then the Manhattan project. The Uranium Committee was paid low and it did not work out well. When an attack on pearl harbor happened The Manhattan project started. General groves was put in charge of it. It cost about 2 billion dollars in time it was made and 26 billion dollars now. A lot of time and money was spent in mining and extracting Uranium-235 and Plutonium 2 radioactive elements. These were needed to make the weapons. The scientist were put under command of J. Oppeinhiemer. There was many great scientist working on the project. The base lab was in Los Alamos, New mexico. Oak ridge,Tennessee was also a big factory. The United states of America and the United Kingdom helped each other during WWII but they did not tell the soviets about it. The Manhattan project was super secret. U.S.A and U.K did not want the Nazis to make a bomb this terrible. They did not want the soviets to find out either. But the soviets found out and the cold war happened, But that and WWII are whole other blogs. The weapons thought of in 1942 were Little boy,Thin man and Fat man. Thin man did not really work out. The Germans were working on a weapon but they were not paid very much by the Government, so their project never reached its goal. In July 16 1945 The trinity test happened. It tested the gadget an Implosion/Plutonium bomb. Implosion is the opposite of explosion. It happens when matter goes inward not outward. After that they made two bombs Little boy and Fat man. Little Bot test was in April 1945. It was not done with pure Uranium so it would not actually explode. They used the gun method here. They shot some Uranium at some other Uranium and made a chain reaction. Fat man was practically the same thing as the gadget. The implosion worked by surrounding the plutonium with regular bombs and then when the bombs exploded they would squash the plutonium and make a nuclear chain reaction. They dropped little boy on Hiroshima on august 6 1945. Then they dropped fat man on Nagasaki on August 9 1945. Then WWII ended. The cold war came and went. But that is an another blog.
Fast fact!
Albert Einstein did not work on the Manhattan project. He did not even know it existed!
How it works
A Nuclear bomb explodes when a nuclear chain reaction happens. Like I wrote above a nuclear chain reaction is when many nuclear reactions happen.You can learn more about this in Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion part of Radioactivity.
Radioactivity
An atom that is radioactive decays losing high energy particles or waves. Radioactivity is also called radioactive decay. The number of Protons Neutrons and electrons changes in a unstable atom. An atom is unstable when its number of protons neutrons and electrons changes. When an atom losses these particles it turns into another element. Radioactive atoms also give off beta,alpha and gamma rays.
Fast fact!
Uranium happens naturally in 2 isotopes: Uranium-235 and Uranium-238. Uranium-235 is a Fissile ( it can make a chain reaction) Uranium-238 is not.
Nuclear fission
Is either a Nuclear reaction or radioactive decay. It happens when an atom's nucleus splits into other smaller nucleus's. It is what happens in most Nuclear weapons.
Nuclear fusion
This happens when 2 nucleus's going at very high speeds collide and from a new nucleus/atom. It happens in the sun and other stars.
Nuclear power/Energy
Nuclear power is the power or energy that comes from Nuclear fission and Fusion. When Fission or Fusion happens large amounts of energy are released. There is energy in the nucleus. It can be harnessed like this. you put Uranium in tubes ( Fuel rods ) that are in water inside a Nuclear reactor. Then nuclear Fission happens in the fuel rods. It makes a controlled chain reaction which releases energy as heat and warms up the water turning it into steam which turns turbines of generators that make electricity. It might be better than fossil fuels but it makes nuclear waste that is radioactive. Nuclear fusion would not make waste. Nuclear waste stays around for a long time and it is dangerous for living things like us.
Quantum Physics/Mechanics
Quantum Physics tells us how sub-atomic particles work and move around. It is pretty complicated and not much is understood about it. There is also plenty about light in it. Calculus and algebra is used extensively in quantum mechanics.
Basics
History
Some cool Chemistry facts
#1 Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the Universe
#2 When some snakes inject venom from their hollow fangs ( the venom is made in glands that are behind the mouth) the venom which is a protein attacks the blood circulation. The cool thing is that if you swallow the venom it isn't poisonous. Because when the venom goes in your digestive system the Digestive system breaks it down.
#3 "Chemistry is the science of change. Chemistry is a physical science; it lies between biology and physics " Eyewitness Chemistry pg 6 & 8
#4 Your mouth and throat burn when you eat chili peppers. This is because of a compound called capsaicin. Capsaicin helps digestion and helps get rid of waste.
#5 What compound is mostly responsible for changing colors and camouflage? Melanin. Melanin is a general name used to talk about many natural colors or pigments. Melanin also helps you tan and protects you from the suns UV radiation.
#6 Only red " Neon sings " actually contain Neon. Here is what Neon sings are: they are tubes that are filled with a noble gas and then run an electric current through them. With real neon signs it is like this. But with some other sings you fill the tube with a gas and some Mercury. When the tube gets electrified the mecury evaporates into gaseous mercury. This Mercury vapor makes ultraviolet light. This UV light makes the coatings in the tube energetic. When these coatings react they make different colors.
#7 Argon 18 was discovered in 1894 by Ramsay and Rayleigh.
#8 Francium 87 is so so so rare that at any moment the crust of the earth has around 30 grams. It is Radioactive so it keeps decaying into other elements. It also makes combines with many elements. It is one of the rarest elements.
#9 Uranium is the heaviest naturally occurring element. You can make many other heavier element in the lab and their might not be an end.
#10 The bitterest thing in the world is Denatonium benzoate C28H34N2O3. This thing saves many lives. An extremely small amount is added to many poisonous things like Gasoline and pesticides. It makes these things taste terrible and makes children and other people not eat or drink it.
#11 A compound called Cyanoacrylate ( usually know as super glue ) is useful for gluing and for crime cases.
Some things from my Coursea class on chemistry
Recently I took a Course on chemistry using coursea from duke university.
Week 1
In week 1 we learned about Scientific notation, the scientific method, significant figures, measuring, matter, energy, Coulomb's law , basic stoichiometry, the mole, physical changes and chemical changes. So scientific notation is expressing really big or really small numbers, like 6*10^12. That ^ sign means you multiply the number before it times itself the number after it times. So it would be 10*10 12 times. This equals 10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10=1 with 12 zeros=1000,000,000,000 . then we multiply it by 6 , this equals 6000,000,000,000 = 6 trillion. The scientific method is a method to learn about the world a prove what is right. The first step is to have a hypothesis, an educated guess about what would happen in an experiment. Like, if you had identical bottles and filled them all with the same amount of vinegar and baking soda. Then you put identical balloons on them. Say you have a hypothesis that if you add more vinegar to one , it will fill up the balloon faster. The amount of vinegar is called a variable, the amount of backing soda, the size of the bottles, the heat and the pressure they receive, these are all variables. For an accurate experiment you must keep all other variables the same for both bottles , except the variable you will change, the amount of vinegar variable. The next step in the scientific method is to conduct the experiment, then the last step is to record the results. There are rules for which numbers in a number are significant, and which are not. They are; 1 any non-zero numbers are significant 2 zeros before non-zeros are not significant 3 zeros to the right of the decimal point and after non-zeros are significant 4 zeros between non-zeros are significant. We learned about measurement units, and conversion factors between imperial and the metric systems. We learned about prefixes like mega, kilo, deci, centi, milli,micro and nano. Mega is 1000,000 meters, Kilo is 100, deci is 0.1, centi is 0.01, milli is 0.001, micro is 0.0001 and nano is 0.00001 meters. We also learned about matter , the definition of matter is : anything that takes up space and has mass. The stuff of our world is matter, Mass is how much matter their is. Matter is made of Atoms, and Atoms are made of subatomic particles, the main ones being: protons , neutrons and electrons. The course also taught me about the periodic table, the elements, molecules and compounds which you can read about here. I learned about energy from the perspective of Chemists and Chemistry. There are 2 main things, things go to lower energy and energy changes when charged particles interacted with each other. Like when magnets of opposite charges come close together, the energy is lower, and when same charges come close the energy is higher. We also leaned about Coulombs law. It is the mathematical equation that describes the interaction between charged particles . Here it is:
F=k q1 q2
Ɛ r2
The F stands for force, attraction or repulsion. K is a constant, always the same positive number. q1 and q2 are the charges. Ɛ is the dielectric constant, it is represented by a epsilon. The dielectric constants is the medium the attraction is happening in , like water or air. The r2 is the distance. By making the distance closer you make the force stronger. We learned about basic stoichiometry, namely writing and reading chemical formulas. I already knew how to do that :). Then we learned about the mole, 6.02*10^23. We learned that a mole of something ( like an atom or a molecule ) , equals that things atomic mass in grams. Like on mole of gold has a mass of 196.97 g. Because the atomic mass of gold is 196.97 u. The u stand for average atomic mass. After this we saw experiments , like ones on chemical change ( rearranging of atoms ) and physical change ( changing the shape and other things but keeping the same chemical ). I got 93 % on that weeks quiz
Week 2
On this week we were informed in more detail about atoms, elements and the periodic table. We learned about ions, isotopes and ionic bonds. I mostly cover all this in my first blog of Atoms and Chemistry. After this we learned about periodic trend like 1st Ionization energy and electronegativity,atomic radius, thermochemistry and density. Periodic trends are
trends of property that are on the periodic table, like 1st ionization energy. 1st Ionization energy is the energy that it takes to remove a single electron from a neutral atom. The 1st Ionization energy goes from lowest ( easiest to remove e- ) in the bottom left corner to high 1st ionization energy ( hard to remove ) in the upper right corner. This is because the elements in the upper right corner only need a few electron to get a full outer shell. The elements here also have less shells and the e-'s are more strongly attracted to the nucleus , harder to take away. The elements in the bottom left corner have very few electrons in their outer shell ( this means it would be easier to take away a few than add many to get a full shell ), and they have more shells, therefore the e-'s are less attracted to the nucleus through the shielding effect. The outer most electrons have so many e-'s shielding them from the full charge of the positive nucleus. Helium has the highest 1st ionization energy, it is the hardest to take an electron from a helium atom. It has only one shell, so technically there is no shielding effect felt. Also it is has a full outer ( valence ) shell. Electronegavity is the ability of an atom to attract bonding e-'s. This trend goes the same way, with fluorine being the most electronegative element. Fluorine has only 2 shells so the shielding effect is hardly felt, and all it needs is 1 more e- to get a full shell. The 2nd shell is relatively close to the nucleus and it has lower energy than most other atoms, since e- like to go to lower energy that is another reason they go. But if that was the only case Hydrogen would be the most electronegative element. you also have to need only one e-. Hydrogen only needs one more e- for a shell also, but it has another option open to it: to get rid of its one e-. Fluorine only has one sensible option so it is more electronegative. Noble gases are generally considered not to need e-'s so they are blotted out of the picture. But noble gases do react, you can read more about it below. The scale used to measure electronegativity was made and named after Linus Pauling: the Pauling scale. The atomic radius is how big the atom is. As you go along a period ( across the periodic table ) atomic radii get smaller. This is because each element in a period has the same number of shells, but different number of e-'s and p+'s. The growing number of protons attracts the outer shell more and shrinks the atom . The element that has the largest atomic radius is Cesium , 55. Every element at the start of their period are the largest in their period. Cesium is close to the bottom and had more shells than the other first period elements. Thermochemistry deals with heat and energy. Lets take a system with clearly defined boundaries. Energy could flow into the system or out of the system, everything that is not in the system is the surroundings. We can calculate the energy of the system if we take the systems final energy and subtract the systems initial energy. For energy flowing in to the system the energy is positive, for it going out it is negative. We also learned about density in week 2. The density of something is its mass divided by its volume.
ρ= Mass/Volume
Rho ρ is denisty, mass could be grams or it could be something else, volume could be mililiters, or something else
ρ= g/mL
so if you had 1 gram of water in 1 mililiter then its density is 1 g/l
ρ= 1 g/ 1 mL
ρ= 1 g/mL
things more dense than water sink, while thing less dense than water float. The tighter packed the molecules in substances are the more dense they are.
I got 90 % that week
Week 3
This week we learned basic chemical nomenclature. We were introduced to oxidation states. This is the charge of an atom if the bonds were parley ionic. We learned how to name ionic compounds and learned about covalenant bonds ( bonds where atoms share e- ). We also learned how to calculate formula mass. Below in Essay 1 I write how to do these things.
This week I got 90 %
Week 4
This week we learned about chemical composition, mole ratios, formulas and chemical reactions
A formula of a molecule is how many atoms their are in it. H2O 2 hydrogens and 1 oxygen.
Chemical reactions are what happen when different compounds interact and atoms change places. We learned how to balance chemical reactions. Here is one:
Fe + O2 ------> Fe2O3
To balance it you add coefficients like this :
4Fe + 3O2 ----> 2Fe2O3
now the atoms of each element on the reactant side equal the ones on the product side.
this week I got 77 %
Essay 1
Nanotechnology is a fairly new field of science. It deals with things at the tiniest scale, like atoms and molecules. Nanotechnolgy is a future technology. We can not do it with nanotechnology now, but here is how you would turn lead into gold: Lead or Pb has 82 protons, while gold or Au has 79 protons. The number of protons affects the type of element , so take Pb, and with a awesome tiny nanotechnology tool or machine ( which has not been invented yet, but hopefully it will be ! ), you take away 3 protons from the nucleus of the Pb atom. Also take away three electrons to make the atom have a neutral charge. Add those protons and electrons to other atoms , changing them into different elements. Once those three protons and electrons went away.... the lead turned into gold!!!! It went from Pb to Tl ( Thallium ) to Hg ( Mercury ) and finally to Au! Now if nanotechnology got this advanced, there would be so much gold on the earth , that it would be worth very little! Now for centuries people have been trying to change lead ( or some other inexpensive metal ) into gold. Alchemy was chemistry during the middle ages, but it had a more magical bases then modern chemistry. Alchemists main goals were to change lead into gold and make a eternal life giving potion. They never succeeded in either ( they would have succeeded with one if they had super advanced nanotechnology ), but the Chinese ( while trying to make eternal life potion ) instead made gunpowder ( this was around the 11th century )! The gunpowder was a mixture of Charcoal ( which has carbon ) , Sulfur and a Nitrate. Nitrate itself has the formula NO3 , but for gunpowder potassium is usually added to the molecule. Potassium Nitrate is a neutral atom , since Nitrate has a oxidation state of -1, and Potassium or K has a oxidation state of +1. The formula for potassium nitrate is KNO3, The charcoal ( mostly C , but not pure C ) and the S are fuel for the combustion of gunpowder. The KNO3 gives oxygen to the combustion helping it explode. The Chinese used gunpowder for fireworks , and also for primitive gunpowder weapons . When the Mongols conquered China ( in 1279, they conquered the song dynasty , during this dynasty gunpowder was invented ), the technology of gunpowder spread along the Mongol empire ( the largest empire connected by land, and second only to the British empire, part of 32 modern countries ) and into Europe. This led to the end of traditional European middle age ideas , Like knights in shining armor and castles. So chemistry contributed to ending knights in shining Armor !
( week 5 was a break ) Week 6
This week we learned about dissolving, solutions and precipitates. Here is how you write a dissolution equation:
Dissolution
NaCl(s) ------------> Na(aq)+1 + Cl(aq)-1
H2O
This is the dissolution of sodium chloride in dihydrogen monoxide ( Water ). Sodium chloride is ionic compound, with 2 Ions. When it gets dissolved in water the water molecules get between the Na and Cl ions, so they do not bond. Interestingly the partially negative ( because water is a polar covalent bond ) O faces the NA cation, while the partially positive H faces the anion Cl. Sometimes when two different compounds are dissolved in water a precipitate forms. This is when a solid forms. There are a list of rules called the solubility rules, these rules explain what is soluble and what is not.
here are the rules:
If you had two compounds that were soluble and when dissolved in water formed a precipitate, than the atoms rearrange and form a compound that is not soluble and a precipitate forms. Like if you had beryllium chloride ( BeCl2 ) and dissolved it in water. Then you take mercury (I) sulfate ( Hg2SO4 ) and dissolve it in water. A precipitate will form. This precipitate is mercury (I) dichloride (Hg2Cl2 ). If you look at the solubility rules you will see beryllium chloride and mercury (I) sulfate are soluble. Mercury (I) dichloride is NOT soluble though and forms a precipitate. The dissolution equation would look like this: BeCl2(s) + Hg2SO4 (s)------> Be (aq) + SO4(aq) + Hg2Cl2(s) .
I got 8.83% this time
Week 7
This week was about Acids, bases, reduction,Oxidation and stoichiometry . First I learned about Acid-Base reactions. I learned about the definitions of acids and bases, from the Arrhenius definition to the Lewis definition. The Arrhenius definition says an acid is a substance the forms H+ cations when dissolved in water. While bases formed OH- , Hydroxide anions when dissolved in water. The Brownstead-Lowry definition says an acid is a proton giver, while bases are proton takers. The Lewis definition says an acid is a electron pair ( 2 electrons ) takers while bases are electron pair givers. There are two main types of electron transfer reactions. They are the acid-base reactions and the redox reactions.
90 % this week
Week 8 ( exam week )
Second part
I completed the first part with a grade and am now doing the second
Week 1
I got 100% this week
Week 2
I got 100% this week
Week 3
I got 90% this week
Week 4
I got 90% this week
Some things from my Coursea class on chemistry
Recently I took a Course on chemistry using coursea from duke university.
Week 1
In week 1 we learned about Scientific notation, the scientific method, significant figures, measuring, matter, energy, Coulomb's law , basic stoichiometry, the mole, physical changes and chemical changes. So scientific notation is expressing really big or really small numbers, like 6*10^12. That ^ sign means you multiply the number before it times itself the number after it times. So it would be 10*10 12 times. This equals 10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10*10=1 with 12 zeros=1000,000,000,000 . then we multiply it by 6 , this equals 6000,000,000,000 = 6 trillion. The scientific method is a method to learn about the world a prove what is right. The first step is to have a hypothesis, an educated guess about what would happen in an experiment. Like, if you had identical bottles and filled them all with the same amount of vinegar and baking soda. Then you put identical balloons on them. Say you have a hypothesis that if you add more vinegar to one , it will fill up the balloon faster. The amount of vinegar is called a variable, the amount of backing soda, the size of the bottles, the heat and the pressure they receive, these are all variables. For an accurate experiment you must keep all other variables the same for both bottles , except the variable you will change, the amount of vinegar variable. The next step in the scientific method is to conduct the experiment, then the last step is to record the results. There are rules for which numbers in a number are significant, and which are not. They are; 1 any non-zero numbers are significant 2 zeros before non-zeros are not significant 3 zeros to the right of the decimal point and after non-zeros are significant 4 zeros between non-zeros are significant. We learned about measurement units, and conversion factors between imperial and the metric systems. We learned about prefixes like mega, kilo, deci, centi, milli,micro and nano. Mega is 1000,000 meters, Kilo is 100, deci is 0.1, centi is 0.01, milli is 0.001, micro is 0.0001 and nano is 0.00001 meters. We also learned about matter , the definition of matter is : anything that takes up space and has mass. The stuff of our world is matter, Mass is how much matter their is. Matter is made of Atoms, and Atoms are made of subatomic particles, the main ones being: protons , neutrons and electrons. The course also taught me about the periodic table, the elements, molecules and compounds which you can read about here. I learned about energy from the perspective of Chemists and Chemistry. There are 2 main things, things go to lower energy and energy changes when charged particles interacted with each other. Like when magnets of opposite charges come close together, the energy is lower, and when same charges come close the energy is higher. We also leaned about Coulombs law. It is the mathematical equation that describes the interaction between charged particles . Here it is:
F=k q1 q2
Ɛ r2
The F stands for force, attraction or repulsion. K is a constant, always the same positive number. q1 and q2 are the charges. Ɛ is the dielectric constant, it is represented by a epsilon. The dielectric constants is the medium the attraction is happening in , like water or air. The r2 is the distance. By making the distance closer you make the force stronger. We learned about basic stoichiometry, namely writing and reading chemical formulas. I already knew how to do that :). Then we learned about the mole, 6.02*10^23. We learned that a mole of something ( like an atom or a molecule ) , equals that things atomic mass in grams. Like on mole of gold has a mass of 196.97 g. Because the atomic mass of gold is 196.97 u. The u stand for average atomic mass. After this we saw experiments , like ones on chemical change ( rearranging of atoms ) and physical change ( changing the shape and other things but keeping the same chemical ). I got 93 % on that weeks quiz
Week 2
On this week we were informed in more detail about atoms, elements and the periodic table. We learned about ions, isotopes and ionic bonds. I mostly cover all this in my first blog of Atoms and Chemistry. After this we learned about periodic trend like 1st Ionization energy and electronegativity,atomic radius, thermochemistry and density. Periodic trends are
trends of property that are on the periodic table, like 1st ionization energy. 1st Ionization energy is the energy that it takes to remove a single electron from a neutral atom. The 1st Ionization energy goes from lowest ( easiest to remove e- ) in the bottom left corner to high 1st ionization energy ( hard to remove ) in the upper right corner. This is because the elements in the upper right corner only need a few electron to get a full outer shell. The elements here also have less shells and the e-'s are more strongly attracted to the nucleus , harder to take away. The elements in the bottom left corner have very few electrons in their outer shell ( this means it would be easier to take away a few than add many to get a full shell ), and they have more shells, therefore the e-'s are less attracted to the nucleus through the shielding effect. The outer most electrons have so many e-'s shielding them from the full charge of the positive nucleus. Helium has the highest 1st ionization energy, it is the hardest to take an electron from a helium atom. It has only one shell, so technically there is no shielding effect felt. Also it is has a full outer ( valence ) shell. Electronegavity is the ability of an atom to attract bonding e-'s. This trend goes the same way, with fluorine being the most electronegative element. Fluorine has only 2 shells so the shielding effect is hardly felt, and all it needs is 1 more e- to get a full shell. The 2nd shell is relatively close to the nucleus and it has lower energy than most other atoms, since e- like to go to lower energy that is another reason they go. But if that was the only case Hydrogen would be the most electronegative element. you also have to need only one e-. Hydrogen only needs one more e- for a shell also, but it has another option open to it: to get rid of its one e-. Fluorine only has one sensible option so it is more electronegative. Noble gases are generally considered not to need e-'s so they are blotted out of the picture. But noble gases do react, you can read more about it below. The scale used to measure electronegativity was made and named after Linus Pauling: the Pauling scale. The atomic radius is how big the atom is. As you go along a period ( across the periodic table ) atomic radii get smaller. This is because each element in a period has the same number of shells, but different number of e-'s and p+'s. The growing number of protons attracts the outer shell more and shrinks the atom . The element that has the largest atomic radius is Cesium , 55. Every element at the start of their period are the largest in their period. Cesium is close to the bottom and had more shells than the other first period elements. Thermochemistry deals with heat and energy. Lets take a system with clearly defined boundaries. Energy could flow into the system or out of the system, everything that is not in the system is the surroundings. We can calculate the energy of the system if we take the systems final energy and subtract the systems initial energy. For energy flowing in to the system the energy is positive, for it going out it is negative. We also learned about density in week 2. The density of something is its mass divided by its volume.
ρ= Mass/Volume
Rho ρ is denisty, mass could be grams or it could be something else, volume could be mililiters, or something else
ρ= g/mL
so if you had 1 gram of water in 1 mililiter then its density is 1 g/l
ρ= 1 g/ 1 mL
ρ= 1 g/mL
things more dense than water sink, while thing less dense than water float. The tighter packed the molecules in substances are the more dense they are.
I got 90 % that week
Week 3
This week we learned basic chemical nomenclature. We were introduced to oxidation states. This is the charge of an atom if the bonds were parley ionic. We learned how to name ionic compounds and learned about covalenant bonds ( bonds where atoms share e- ). We also learned how to calculate formula mass. Below in Essay 1 I write how to do these things.
This week I got 90 %
Week 4
This week we learned about chemical composition, mole ratios, formulas and chemical reactions
A formula of a molecule is how many atoms their are in it. H2O 2 hydrogens and 1 oxygen.
Chemical reactions are what happen when different compounds interact and atoms change places. We learned how to balance chemical reactions. Here is one:
Fe + O2 ------> Fe2O3
To balance it you add coefficients like this :
4Fe + 3O2 ----> 2Fe2O3
now the atoms of each element on the reactant side equal the ones on the product side.
this week I got 77 %
Essay 1
Here is a Compound:
TiI4[1]
I chose this compound because it's my name backwards! Ian Timothy.
Lets name it. First we need to decide which rules to use, for this one we will use the Ionic compound rules. First we name the ions in the compound. The Ions here are: Titanium cation and Iodide anion. The Cation is written first, then the Anion. Since Titanium's oxidation state can change , we need to write it. To write the oxidation state of Titanium, we use parentheses and roman numerals like this: (III) . We need to figure out the oxidation state of Titanium in this particular compound. To discover it we look at Iodide, it has a oxidation state of -1. There are 4 Iodide's and all the Iodides charges combined equal -4. The compound is neutral so the oxidation state of Ti is +4. We write the name like this: titanium(IV) iodide. The IV shows the oxidation state of Ti.
Now lets calculate its mass. There is 1 Ti and Ti's average atomic mass is 47.88. There are 4 Is and I's average atomic mass is 126.90, you times this by 4, and get 507.6. You add 47.88 and 507.6 to get 555.48. 555.48 u ( u stand for average atomic mass ) is the mass of this compound
TiI4[1]
I chose this compound because it's my name backwards! Ian Timothy.
Lets name it. First we need to decide which rules to use, for this one we will use the Ionic compound rules. First we name the ions in the compound. The Ions here are: Titanium cation and Iodide anion. The Cation is written first, then the Anion. Since Titanium's oxidation state can change , we need to write it. To write the oxidation state of Titanium, we use parentheses and roman numerals like this: (III) . We need to figure out the oxidation state of Titanium in this particular compound. To discover it we look at Iodide, it has a oxidation state of -1. There are 4 Iodide's and all the Iodides charges combined equal -4. The compound is neutral so the oxidation state of Ti is +4. We write the name like this: titanium(IV) iodide. The IV shows the oxidation state of Ti.
Now lets calculate its mass. There is 1 Ti and Ti's average atomic mass is 47.88. There are 4 Is and I's average atomic mass is 126.90, you times this by 4, and get 507.6. You add 47.88 and 507.6 to get 555.48. 555.48 u ( u stand for average atomic mass ) is the mass of this compound
Now let figure out how many protons, neutrons and electrons there are in it. There are 234 protons, 234 electrons and 322 neutrons.
( week 5 was a break ) Week 6
This week we learned about dissolving, solutions and precipitates. Here is how you write a dissolution equation:
Dissolution
NaCl(s) ------------> Na(aq)+1 + Cl(aq)-1
H2O
This is the dissolution of sodium chloride in dihydrogen monoxide ( Water ). Sodium chloride is ionic compound, with 2 Ions. When it gets dissolved in water the water molecules get between the Na and Cl ions, so they do not bond. Interestingly the partially negative ( because water is a polar covalent bond ) O faces the NA cation, while the partially positive H faces the anion Cl. Sometimes when two different compounds are dissolved in water a precipitate forms. This is when a solid forms. There are a list of rules called the solubility rules, these rules explain what is soluble and what is not.
here are the rules:
- most compounds of ammonium and alkali metals are soluble.
- most compounds that have many atoms and have a low charge are soluble, like acetate ( C2H3O2-1 ) and perchlorate ( ClO4-1 )
- most compounds of the halogens are soluble , except those with silver (I), copper (1), Thallium (I) , mercury(I) and lead (II) cations
- most compounds of sulfate ( SO4-2) are soluble , except ones with calcium, strontium, barium and lead (II) cations
- most other ionic compounds are insoluble
If you had two compounds that were soluble and when dissolved in water formed a precipitate, than the atoms rearrange and form a compound that is not soluble and a precipitate forms. Like if you had beryllium chloride ( BeCl2 ) and dissolved it in water. Then you take mercury (I) sulfate ( Hg2SO4 ) and dissolve it in water. A precipitate will form. This precipitate is mercury (I) dichloride (Hg2Cl2 ). If you look at the solubility rules you will see beryllium chloride and mercury (I) sulfate are soluble. Mercury (I) dichloride is NOT soluble though and forms a precipitate. The dissolution equation would look like this: BeCl2(s) + Hg2SO4 (s)------> Be (aq) + SO4(aq) + Hg2Cl2(s) .
I got 8.83% this time
Week 7
This week was about Acids, bases, reduction,Oxidation and stoichiometry . First I learned about Acid-Base reactions. I learned about the definitions of acids and bases, from the Arrhenius definition to the Lewis definition. The Arrhenius definition says an acid is a substance the forms H+ cations when dissolved in water. While bases formed OH- , Hydroxide anions when dissolved in water. The Br
90 % this week
Week 8 ( exam week )
Second part
I completed the first part with a grade and am now doing the second
Week 1
I got 100% this week
Week 2
I got 100% this week
Week 3
I got 90% this week
Week 4
I got 90% this week
My BYU course on chemistry
I am doing an online chemistry course by BYU. It is a high school honors course. It is a self study course with no deadlines.
Lesson 1
This lesson taught and tested me on basic chemical nomenclature. I learned about various polyatomic ions, like cyanide ( CN-1) , hexafluorosilicate ( SiF6-2 ), Iodate ( IO3-1 ) and dichromate ( Cr2O7-2). We used these polyatomic ions in naming compounds. I got a A- because I tapped the down arrow to go to the next problem, but instead it made my answer go down one. On essay 1 above I write how to name TiI4.
Lesson 2
This lesson taught and tested me on complex chemical nomenclature. I learned how to name complex inorganic ions. For cations ( positively charged ions ) you put the name of the metal ( usually the first element in the molecular formula ) at the end of the name and assign an oxidation state if needed. Then you take the anion ( or the second part of the molecular formula, like Ammonia ) in the compound ( chloride, fluoride, Iodide exc ) and change its name to a ligand. To do this you replace the -ide with an -o. So chloride would be chloro, fluoride fluoro and so on.... . Then you take the ligand and put it at the starting of the name, to the left of the metal. If there is more than 1 ligand add a prefix to the start like di- or tri-. Three chlorides would become trichloro. Finally at the word Ion to then of the word . Here is an example:
name SnCl2+2
so we put tin at the end:
tin
Tin needs an oxidation state. Cl has an Oxs of -1, and there are 2 of them. So for the overall charge to equal +2 you need to make Sn have an oxs of 4. You do this by writing roman numerals in parentheses:
tin (IV)
OK lets change Cl2 into dichloro:
dichlorotin (IV)
and finally ad Ion to the end
dichlorotin (IV) ion
That's it for naming complex positive inorganic compounds. Now lets name complex negative inorganic compounds. This is a bit harder. First you take the metal and put it at the end of the name, just like the complex cations. But you have to change the metals name a bit ( or a lot ). You have to write it in Latin form , if possible. Gold : Aurum, Lead: plumbum and so on. Then you need to change the end of the name to -ate. Arumate, Plumbate and so on. Finally you add an oxs if necessary ( note : metals that do not have a Latin form just change the end of their name to -ate: Chromate and so on ). Then you change the end of the molecular formula ( almost always a non-metal ) into a ligand, add prefix if needed and put it to the left of the metal. Finally like the cations, you add the word ion to the end. Here is an example:
SnCl4-2
This is similar to the first example but the number of Chlorides has changed along with the overall charge. So lets change tin into it's right form for this compound. Tin is Stannum. We change the end to -ate and get stannate. I just love that word : Stannate , doesn't it sound so cool ? Anyway lets put stannate at the end:
stannate
Stannate needs it's oxs in parentheses, beacuse the over charge is -2, and each of the 4 Cl are -1,
Stannate has to be +2:
stannate (II)
Now lets take the 4 Cls. Well we change this into tetrachloro, tetra for four and we make it a ligand:
tetarchlorostannate (II)
Finally we add the word Ion to the end:
tetarchlorostannate (II) ion.
Not all metals need their oxs in parentheses . For example all the alkali , alkali earth metals, Zinc
, Silver and aluminum. The Alkali metals are +1, alkali earth +2, Silver +1, Zinc +2 and Aluminum
+3.
I also learned how to name and draw structures for basic organic molecules called hydrocarbons. Hydrogen and carbon form very stable compounds. Each C typicality needs 4 bonds. It has 4 Valence Electrons ( VE ) and it needs 4 more to have a full shell. I learned that molecules with Carbon start with Meth-, 2 C Eth- and so on. I learned the molecules with all single bonds ended with -ane, at least one double end in -ene and at least 1 triple end in -yne. CH4 is Methane:
H
|
|
H-------C-------H
|
|
H
One carbon starts with Meth- all single bonds ends with -ane. This is the simplest hydrocarbon. Other hydrocarbons have long chains of carbons connected to hydrogens and side chains. Side chains are a carbon connected to hydrogens that branch of from the main chain.
side chain
\
\ H
\ |
H H---C---H H H
| | | |
| | | |
H-------C-------C-------C-------C-------H
| | | |
| | | |
H H H H
This hydrocarbon has 4 carbons in the main chain. The name of the main chain would start with but- , there are all single bonds so the main chains name would be butane. We need to name the side chain now. This side chain has 1 carbon, Meth-. all side chains end with -yl. So this side chain is called Methyl. You put the name of the side chain first: Methylbutane. The last thing we need to do is write the address of the methyl. This means if you count the carbons which one it is on. First count both ways. From left to right it is 2, from right to left it is 3. You choose the lowest number, 2. So the name of this hydrocarbon is 2-methylbutane. Ta da! This is only the basics of the basics of the basics. If there were more than 1 methyl you would add a prefix like di, tri, tetra, pent and so on. There are other types of side chains like Ethyl ( C2H5 ) and if you have both in one molecule you would list Ethyl first , because it comes first in the alphabet.
Anyway on lesson 2's quiz I got another A-.
Lesson 3
This lesson deals with the math in chemistry, scientific notation, significant figures, Density calculations and factor label problems . I got an A- on it
Lesson 4
This lesson deals with the mole, 6.0221415*10^23. It introduces it and tells you how to use it. We learned how to calculate the molecular weight, the percent of each element in a compound and how to convert between moles, grams, and atoms. I got a A on it.
Lesson 5
This lesson went deeper with the mole and taught use about molarity (M=m/mw/L) , how to calculate empirical and molecular formulas, and how to calculate the formula for a hydrated crystal. I got an A on this.
I am doing an online chemistry course by BYU. It is a high school honors course. It is a self study course with no deadlines.
Lesson 1
This lesson taught and tested me on basic chemical nomenclature. I learned about various polyatomic ions, like cyanide ( CN-1) , hexafluorosilicate ( SiF6-2 ), Iodate ( IO3-1 ) and dichromate ( Cr2O7-2). We used these polyatomic ions in naming compounds. I got a A- because I tapped the down arrow to go to the next problem, but instead it made my answer go down one. On essay 1 above I write how to name TiI4.
Lesson 2
This lesson taught and tested me on complex chemical nomenclature. I learned how to name complex inorganic ions. For cations ( positively charged ions ) you put the name of the metal ( usually the first element in the molecular formula ) at the end of the name and assign an oxidation state if needed. Then you take the anion ( or the second part of the molecular formula, like Ammonia ) in the compound ( chloride, fluoride, Iodide exc ) and change its name to a ligand. To do this you replace the -ide with an -o. So chloride would be chloro, fluoride fluoro and so on.... . Then you take the ligand and put it at the starting of the name, to the left of the metal. If there is more than 1 ligand add a prefix to the start like di- or tri-. Three chlorides would become trichloro. Finally at the word Ion to then of the word . Here is an example:
name SnCl2+2
so we put tin at the end:
tin
Tin needs an oxidation state. Cl has an Oxs of -1, and there are 2 of them. So for the overall charge to equal +2 you need to make Sn have an oxs of 4. You do this by writing roman numerals in parentheses:
tin (IV)
OK lets change Cl2 into dichloro:
dichlorotin (IV)
and finally ad Ion to the end
dichlorotin (IV) ion
That's it for naming complex positive inorganic compounds. Now lets name complex negative inorganic compounds. This is a bit harder. First you take the metal and put it at the end of the name, just like the complex cations. But you have to change the metals name a bit ( or a lot ). You have to write it in Latin form , if possible. Gold : Aurum, Lead: plumbum and so on. Then you need to change the end of the name to -ate. Arumate, Plumbate and so on. Finally you add an oxs if necessary ( note : metals that do not have a Latin form just change the end of their name to -ate: Chromate and so on ). Then you change the end of the molecular formula ( almost always a non-metal ) into a ligand, add prefix if needed and put it to the left of the metal. Finally like the cations, you add the word ion to the end. Here is an example:
SnCl4-2
This is similar to the first example but the number of Chlorides has changed along with the overall charge. So lets change tin into it's right form for this compound. Tin is Stannum. We change the end to -ate and get stannate. I just love that word : Stannate , doesn't it sound so cool ? Anyway lets put stannate at the end:
stannate
Stannate needs it's oxs in parentheses, beacuse the over charge is -2, and each of the 4 Cl are -1,
Stannate has to be +2:
stannate (II)
Now lets take the 4 Cls. Well we change this into tetrachloro, tetra for four and we make it a ligand:
tetarchlorostannate (II)
tetarchlorostannate (II) ion.
Not all metals need their oxs in parentheses . For example all the alkali , alkali earth metals, Zinc
, Silver and aluminum. The Alkali metals are +1, alkali earth +2, Silver +1, Zinc +2 and Aluminum
+3.
I also learned how to name and draw structures for basic organic molecules called hydrocarbons. Hydrogen and carbon form very stable compounds. Each C typicality needs 4 bonds. It has 4 Valence Electrons ( VE ) and it needs 4 more to have a full shell. I learned that molecules with Carbon start with Meth-, 2 C Eth- and so on. I learned the molecules with all single bonds ended with -ane, at least one double end in -ene and at least 1 triple end in -yne. CH4 is Methane:
H
|
|
H-------C-------H
|
|
H
One carbon starts with Meth- all single bonds ends with -ane. This is the simplest hydrocarbon. Other hydrocarbons have long chains of carbons connected to hydrogens and side chains. Side chains are a carbon connected to hydrogens that branch of from the main chain.
side chain
\
\ H
\ |
H H---C---H H H
| | | |
| | | |
H-------C-------C-------C-------C-------H
| | | |
| | | |
H H H H
This hydrocarbon has 4 carbons in the main chain. The name of the main chain would start with but- , there are all single bonds so the main chains name would be butane. We need to name the side chain now. This side chain has 1 carbon, Meth-. all side chains end with -yl. So this side chain is called Methyl. You put the name of the side chain first: Methylbutane. The last thing we need to do is write the address of the methyl. This means if you count the carbons which one it is on. First count both ways. From left to right it is 2, from right to left it is 3. You choose the lowest number, 2. So the name of this hydrocarbon is 2-methylbutane. Ta da! This is only the basics of the basics of the basics. If there were more than 1 methyl you would add a prefix like di, tri, tetra, pent and so on. There are other types of side chains like Ethyl ( C2H5 ) and if you have both in one molecule you would list Ethyl first , because it comes first in the alphabet.
Anyway on lesson 2's quiz I got another A-.
Lesson 3
This lesson deals with the math in chemistry, scientific notation, significant figures, Density calculations and factor label problems . I got an A- on it
Lesson 4
This lesson deals with the mole, 6.0221415*10^23. It introduces it and tells you how to use it. We learned how to calculate the molecular weight, the percent of each element in a compound and how to convert between moles, grams, and atoms. I got a A on it.
Lesson 5
This lesson went deeper with the mole and taught use about molarity (M=m/mw/L) , how to calculate empirical and molecular formulas, and how to calculate the formula for a hydrated crystal. I got an A on this.
Oxidation and Gas laws
Oxidation and Reduction
Gas laws
Therochemistry,Kinetics,Free energy and Entropy
Chemical Nomenclature, Electrochemistry, Photochemistry and Geochemistry
Chemical Nomenclature
Chemical nomenclature is the process of naming compounds and chemicals. There are many ways to name compounds,
Fast fact
Biographies of Some chemists
Democritus
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Antonie laurent de lavoisier
John Dalton
Niels Bohr
Albert Einstein
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Element country and Stoichiometry
Sweden
This might seem like an unlikely country but it is a favorite of mine and of the elements
Stoichiometry
Noble Gas compounds
link to the pH, Acids and Bases
sources: Brainpop,Wikipedia, Ted-Ed , The elements app, www.eurekalert.org,www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/bread_science.html, http://www.ck12.org , What your Fifth grader needs to Know, a bit of The atom bomb project, Eyewitness Chemistry, Coursea, Smithsonian enclyopedia and Khan academy
Oxidation and Reduction
Gas laws
Therochemistry,Kinetics,Free energy and Entropy
Chemical Nomenclature, Electrochemistry, Photochemistry and Geochemistry
Chemical Nomenclature
Chemical nomenclature is the process of naming compounds and chemicals. There are many ways to name compounds,
Fast fact
Biographies of Some chemists
Democritus
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Antonie laurent de lavoisier
John Dalton
Niels Bohr
Otto Hahn
Ernest Lawrencium
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Element country and Stoichiometry
Sweden
This might seem like an unlikely country but it is a favorite of mine and of the elements
Stoichiometry
Noble Gas compounds
link to the pH, Acids and Bases
sources: Brainpop,Wikipedia, Ted-Ed , The elements app, www.eurekalert.org,www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/bread_science.html, http://www.ck12.org , What your Fifth grader needs to Know, a bit of The atom bomb project, Eyewitness Chemistry, Coursea, Smithsonian enclyopedia and Khan academy
Microscopy and some other Science things
Microscopy
We used a Camera Microscope that you can attach to your phone to take these pictures:
Microscopy is cool
History
Types
How it works
Why to use it
you can read more about it below in the Summary of the book Milestones in Science section of this . Other Science Things
Earth and Space
Solar System and Earth
here are some links that relate to what I am writing here. Link Link link link
Sun
The Sun is in the center of the solar system. The Sun just like earth rotates on its axis. The Sun is made out of Burning gases. without the sun life on earth would stop. when we look at the we can see the Photosphere.
Fact
makes up 99.8% of the mass of the solar system
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Asteroid Belt
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Biology
Chemistry
Energy , Forces and more.
some other stuff and Summary of Dr arts guide to science.
Batteries and Electrochemistry
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
This Chapter is about energy. Energy makes matter change and move around. Matter is the stuff in the world, anything that takes up space. Electricity, Light , motion and heat are all forms of Energy. Energy changes form a lot.
Benjamin Thompson was a scientist and count. He was born in Massachusetts in 1753. He invented many things including efficient fire places. He did an experiment that proved friction could turn into heat energy.
The Laws of the Conservation of Energy state that energy can not be created or destroyed. The Atomic theory of matter says that atoms and molecules vibrate and move around. They move around more in gases and liquids then solids. Heat = the energy of motion. So when molecules move around fast it creates heat. Physical change is when things melt, evaporate,condense and freeze. It is when matter changes states, from solids( in solids the molecules vibrate but do not really move around) to liquid( in liquid the molecules move around more ) to gas ( and in gas the molecules move around the most ).
In Physical changes the matter keeps the same atoms and molecules. In chemical change though the molecules change. The matter becomes something totally different. Fire is an example of chemical change. In fire the starting molecules ( Oxygen and wood ), have more Chemical energy than the products ( carbon dioxide and water ) .So in order to stay true to the laws of conservation, another product is heat and light energy ( fire ).Chemical change does not create energy, it conserves it.
1 water molecule is not wetter then one rock molecule, because you need many molecules together in a system to feel wetness. We are systems of molecules that experience other systems of molecules.
Chapter 5
This chapter is about Forces. When Matter changes its energy then a force is being acted on it.
Galileo measured gravity ( the force that attracts things. When a apple falls to earth, gravity is acting , attracting the apple to the earth and the earth to the apple. Since the earth is way bigger than the apple you cant really see the earth being moved towards the apple because it is so small a force. )
Issac newton discovered gravity, he also invented Calculus, so he could measure the strength of gravity exactly. Newton made the Newton's laws of Gravitation Attraction and Newton's laws of motion. They say that the farther apart the objects are and smaller the mass ( mass is how much matter there is in something ) of the objects - the weaker the force of gravity. But the closer together the objects are and the more Mass that have -the stronger the force of Gravity. Gravity applies everywhere in the universe. It is the force that makes the moon orbit the earth and the earth orbit the sun.
There is a/are force/forces stronger than Gravity. The 2 separate forces are electricity ( electricity is the flow and charge of electrons . One form of electricity is static electricity. Static electricity is stronger than gravity. One way to show this is when you rub a balloon on fur and then pick up paper. Gravity is acting on the paper , but it can not keep it on the ground. Why this happened: When we rub the balloon on the fur it rubs of some electrons on the fur. The electrons come on the balloon and make it negatively charged. The paper is neutral ( has same number of protons as electrons ) so when we bring a negatively charged balloon by it the electrons near the surface move away from their alike counterparts. This makes the surface of the paper Positive. Since unlike attract the positively charged surface of the paper goes towards the negatively charged balloon.) and Magnetism ( Magnetism is a force field around a Magnet that attracts metal like Iron. Magnets have a North and south pole. ). Together they are called Electromagnetism ( Electromagnetism ). Magnetism and electricity are closely related to each other and are parts of Electromagnetism.
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Some of the book Science by John Farndon
Photography
Film
Phonograph
Light bulb
Heat, Steam and Engines
Summary of science in 6th grade book
Natural science
Physical science
Stories of Scientists
Sources: Dr. art's guide to Science, 6th grade basic skills, Wikipedia and brainpop.
We used a Camera Microscope that you can attach to your phone to take these pictures:
Microscopy is cool
History
Types
How it works
Why to use it
you can read more about it below in the Summary of the book Milestones in Science section of this . Other Science Things
Earth and Space
Solar System and Earth
here are some links that relate to what I am writing here. Link Link link link
Sun
The Sun is in the center of the solar system. The Sun just like earth rotates on its axis. The Sun is made out of Burning gases. without the sun life on earth would stop. when we look at the we can see the Photosphere.
Fact
makes up 99.8% of the mass of the solar system
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Asteroid Belt
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Biology
Chemistry
Energy , Forces and more.
some other stuff and Summary of Dr arts guide to science.
Batteries and Electrochemistry
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
This Chapter is about energy. Energy makes matter change and move around. Matter is the stuff in the world, anything that takes up space. Electricity, Light , motion and heat are all forms of Energy. Energy changes form a lot.
Benjamin Thompson was a scientist and count. He was born in Massachusetts in 1753. He invented many things including efficient fire places. He did an experiment that proved friction could turn into heat energy.
The Laws of the Conservation of Energy state that energy can not be created or destroyed. The Atomic theory of matter says that atoms and molecules vibrate and move around. They move around more in gases and liquids then solids. Heat = the energy of motion. So when molecules move around fast it creates heat. Physical change is when things melt, evaporate,condense and freeze. It is when matter changes states, from solids( in solids the molecules vibrate but do not really move around) to liquid( in liquid the molecules move around more ) to gas ( and in gas the molecules move around the most ).
In Physical changes the matter keeps the same atoms and molecules. In chemical change though the molecules change. The matter becomes something totally different. Fire is an example of chemical change. In fire the starting molecules ( Oxygen and wood ), have more Chemical energy than the products ( carbon dioxide and water ) .So in order to stay true to the laws of conservation, another product is heat and light energy ( fire ).Chemical change does not create energy, it conserves it.
1 water molecule is not wetter then one rock molecule, because you need many molecules together in a system to feel wetness. We are systems of molecules that experience other systems of molecules.
Chapter 5
This chapter is about Forces. When Matter changes its energy then a force is being acted on it.
Galileo measured gravity ( the force that attracts things. When a apple falls to earth, gravity is acting , attracting the apple to the earth and the earth to the apple. Since the earth is way bigger than the apple you cant really see the earth being moved towards the apple because it is so small a force. )
Issac newton discovered gravity, he also invented Calculus, so he could measure the strength of gravity exactly. Newton made the Newton's laws of Gravitation Attraction and Newton's laws of motion. They say that the farther apart the objects are and smaller the mass ( mass is how much matter there is in something ) of the objects - the weaker the force of gravity. But the closer together the objects are and the more Mass that have -the stronger the force of Gravity. Gravity applies everywhere in the universe. It is the force that makes the moon orbit the earth and the earth orbit the sun.
There is a/are force/forces stronger than Gravity. The 2 separate forces are electricity ( electricity is the flow and charge of electrons . One form of electricity is static electricity. Static electricity is stronger than gravity. One way to show this is when you rub a balloon on fur and then pick up paper. Gravity is acting on the paper , but it can not keep it on the ground. Why this happened: When we rub the balloon on the fur it rubs of some electrons on the fur. The electrons come on the balloon and make it negatively charged. The paper is neutral ( has same number of protons as electrons ) so when we bring a negatively charged balloon by it the electrons near the surface move away from their alike counterparts. This makes the surface of the paper Positive. Since unlike attract the positively charged surface of the paper goes towards the negatively charged balloon.) and Magnetism ( Magnetism is a force field around a Magnet that attracts metal like Iron. Magnets have a North and south pole. ). Together they are called Electromagnetism ( Electromagnetism ). Magnetism and electricity are closely related to each other and are parts of Electromagnetism.
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Some of the book Science by John Farndon
Energy has many forms heat, electricity , light and others. Almost all of our Energy comes from the Sun. Some directly from solar Panels, but most indirectly from fossils fuels( coal, oil, petroleum and Gasoline. These are fossils and dead organisms compressed and under immense pressure by layers of soil and land , that turn them ,after many years , into Oil and other fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are considered nonrenewable, because It takes a very long time for them to form. They are bad for the environment not only because they are nonrenewable , but also because burning them releases air pollution carbon monoxide and other compounds bad for the environment ). The dead organism got their energy either directly from the sun ( plants and photosynthesis ) or indirectly from eating the plants or eating the animals that ate the plants. Energy efficiency is the measure of how much energy is wasted. Machines that waste very little have good energy efficiency. Energy is a form of mass; mass is a form of energy. Absolute zero is the coldest temperature of all. On the Kelvin scale it is 0 , while on the Fahrenheit scale it is -459.67 degrees. Theoretically it is when molecules cease to move, but this is around impossible it was almost reached in a Finnish Laboratory. Conduction is 1 of 3 ways heat moves. It is when heats spreads from hot places to cold places. The other 2 ways are convection ( when warm air or water rises ) and radiation. You can convert Fahrenheit to Celsius by subtracting 32, dividing by 9 ,multiplying by 5.Like this : 90 degrees Fahrenheit - 32 = 58 / 9 = 6.4•5 = 32. So 90 F = 32 C . Celsius is based on waters boiling and freezing points . 0 degrees Celsius is the freezing point of water , while 100 degrees Celsius is the boiling point of water.
Summary of the book Milestones in Science.
Light , colors and sound
Light is a form of energy that is made up of waves and particles , called Photons. For creatures that see , light is very important. A long time ago people made artificial ( fake, man made ) light . Later scientists learned about rainbows, optical instruments , light , cameras and more. Sound is also important to us.
Magnifying glass
The Romans observed that water filled glass balls magnify , zoom in on or make bigger ( in this case only visually ) objects. Around 1,000 years later ( about 1020 46 years before the Norman conquest of England ) an Arabian scholar, official and scientist ( Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn al-Haithan. He was an official in Egypt. But he liked science more than his job as an official. He was the first person to make the Camera obscura and magnifying lenses he also wrote a book called Kitab-al-Manazir, which was about optics ) looked at curved glass and found out they can be used as a magnifying lens or burning tool. He set up the base for further scientific research in optics.
Camera obscura
A camera obscura is: when light enters through a small hole into a dark room and makes an upside down picture. Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn al-Haithan made the first of these. Artists used these for drawing, but not until 1840 were they used for photography.
Fast fact
The first eyeglasses were made of clear gemstones not glass ! The man who is credited as the European inventor of the eyeglasses is called Roger Bacon ( he was from England ). He knew about Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn al-Haithan's inventions though. Roger Bacon was an amazing man , he predicted airplanes and microscopes way before they were invented.
Telescope
We don't exactly know invented this , but it might be Hans Lippershey ( supposedly Hans held many eyeglasses in front of each other , and on accident found " that they magnified things in the distance ". Hans was a great lens and eyeglasses maker that was born in Germany, and later moving to Holland became a citizen of Netherlands ) a Dutch-German man or Leonardo Da Vinci ( An amazing genius-polymath ( Polymath means : good at many things, and boy was Leonardo good at many things like: Painting, Science, Math, Writer , Musician and Inventor ) of the Renaissance. He is Famous for painting the Mona Lisa )an Italian ( He might have made a small,weak telescope way before Hans ). Either way in 1609 Galileo Galilei ( Galileo was a bit of a Polymath to : he was good at Math, Astronomy, Physics and Inventing. He discovered the Law of Falling bodies ) built a newer better telescope and looked a space. He discovered that the moon had craters and ridges, and found moons orbiting Jupiter. In 1611 ,2 years after Galileo discoveries , Johannes Kepler ( he was an Austrian -German ) published a book that told you how to make a better telescope ( an Astronomical Telescope that turned everything upside down, but since planets were and are mostly close to a Sphere it did not matter ) and told you how a telescope works ( Telescopes capture and Magnify light with Lenses and mirrors. A Binocular is actually 2 Telescopes stuck together. Refractor Telescopes use lenses to gather and Magnify light, while Reflectors use Mirrors. The Aperture of a telescope is the diameter of the main lens ).
Microscopes and Microscopy
There are many types of Microscopes, like Electron Microscopes and Light/ Optical Microscopes. The one were are going to write about here is the Light/Optical Microscope. It uses Lenses ,like the telescope , to magnify very small things. It is not certain who invented it, maybe Zacharias Jansen , maybe Anton van Leeuwenhoek ( who were both Dutch ), Maybe Galileo but one thing is know for certain. After the years the Microscope was invented Ernst Abbe ( a German ) calculated the way to get the best picture, he improved the Microscope a lot.
The Electromagnetic spectrum
This is the Spectrum of Radiation from Radio waves to Gamma rays. The wavelength is longer in Radio waves than in Gamma Rays. Visible light is all the light we can see and it only makes up a fraction of the spectrum, the colors of visible light ( from longest wavelength to shortest ) are : Red,Orange,Yellow,Green,Blue,Indigo and Violet. Infrared radiation is right below Red on the electromagnetic spectrum, it has a longer wavelength than red. Ultraviolet is right above violet on the electromagnetic spectrum, it has a shorter wavelength than violet. Beneath Infrared are Microwaves ( which heat up food in a Microwave oven ) , and below Microwaves are Radio waves ( radios use these waves ). Above Ultraviolet are X-rays, and above X-rays are Gamma rays. Issac Newton discovered visible white light was and is actually made out of visible colored light in 1672.
Diffraction and Refraction
Diffraction and Refraction are proprieties of light waves and other waves. Light usually travels in a straight line, but when something gets in its way ( like glass ) the light gets bent and this is called Refraction. Light changes speed in materials that have more density ( how tightly packed the molecules are ), this causes the bending. How much the light bends is called the angle of refraction." Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves "
Spectral analysis
Photography
Film
Phonograph
Light bulb
Heat, Steam and Engines
Summary of science in 6th grade book
Natural science
Physical science
Stories of Scientists
Sources: Dr. art's guide to Science, 6th grade basic skills, Wikipedia and brainpop.
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